Richard G. Lugar, United States Senator for Richard G. Lugar, United States Senator for Indiana
Richard G. Lugar, United States Senator for Indiana
Home > Senator Lugar's Farm Bill > Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws

Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws

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S/U — Stocks-to-use ratio.
S.T.O.P. — Safe Tables Our Priority. www.stop-usa.org.
S-K — Saltonstall-Kennedy Grant Program.
S&D — Special and differential treatment.
S&PF — State & Private Forestry.
SAA — Shared appreciation agreement.
SAB — Science Advisory Board of EPA.
SAC — Suspended and canceled pesticides.
SAES — State Agricultural Experiment Stations.
SAF — Society of American Foresters. www.safnet.org.
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) — P.L. 93-523, as amended, is the key federal law for protecting public water systems from harmful contaminants (42 U.S.C. 300f-300j). First enacted in 1974, the Act, as amended, is administered by the EPA through regulatory programs that establish standards and treatment requirements for drinking water contaminants, control underground injection of wastes that might contaminate water supplies, and protect ground and surface water sources. Regulated public water systems under the Act are those that have at least 15 service connections or regularly serve 25 or more individuals. The 1996 amendments (P.L. 104-182) broadened the definition of public water system to include systems that deliver water through pipes or "other constructed conveyances," which includes agricultural irrigation systems that convey water that is used for residential purposes (unless alternative water is provided for drinking and cooking; or unless water for drinking, cooking, and bathing is treated). The 1996 amendments also require states to identify, to the extent practicable, origins of contaminants in areas providing source waters for public water systems to determine the susceptibility of systems to contamination; such areas could include farmland. (42 U.S.C. 300f-300j).
Safe Meat and Poultry Inspection Panel — An advisory panel to review and evaluate inspection policies and proposed changes that the 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127, Sec. 918) permanently authorized by amendment to the federal meat and poultry inspection statutes. Provisions in annual USDA appropriations laws since 1996 have prohibited the department from actually establishing the advisory panel.
Safeguards, import — A trade policy tool to remedy actual or threatened injury by imports to a domestic industry. Its purpose is to allow a producing sector to adjust to changed market conditions before facing competition again without such protection. For agricultural products subject to tariffication, the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture (Part I, Article 5) establishes a special agricultural safeguard that allows countries to impose an additional duty when sudden import surges (volumes) exceed, or import prices fall below, a trigger level. Free trade agreements also can include agricultural safeguards for specific products.
Sales for local currencies — A provision of P.L. 480 that permits a portion of commercial sales (under Title I) to be repaid in the country's local currency.
Salvage rider — A provision in the Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act of 1995 (P.L. 104-19, Sec. 2001, July 27, 1995) to expand salvage timber sales from July 27, 1995, through December 31, 1996, by exempting them from public challenges under environmental laws. This was controversial because it reinstated numerous timber sales in Washington and Oregon that had been stopped to protect endangered and threatened species habitat.
Salvage sales — Timber sales from national forests primarily to remove dead, infested, damaged, or down trees and associated trees for stand improvement. They are controversial partly because there are no standards for the number or proportion of trees that must be dead, infested, damaged, or down and partly because the Forest Service may retain the revenues to prepare and administer future salvage sales.
Sample grade — In commodities, usually the lowest quality of a commodity, too low to be acceptable for delivery in satisfaction of futures contracts.
Sanctions — See Embargo.
Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures and agreements — Measures to protect humans, animals, and plants from diseases, pests, or contaminants. The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures is one of the final documents approved at the conclusion of the Uruguay Round of the Multilateral Trade Negotiations. It applies to all sanitary (relating to animals) and phytosanitary (relating to plants) (SPS) measures that may have a direct or indirect impact on international trade. The SPS agreement includes a series of understandings (trade disciplines) on how SPS measures will be established and used by countries when they establish, revise, or apply their domestic laws and regulations. Countries agree to base their SPS standards on science, and as guidance for their actions, the agreement encourages countries to use standards set by international standard setting organizations. The SPS agreement seeks to ensure that SPS measures will not arbitrarily or unjustifiably discriminate against trade of certain other members nor be used to disguise trade restrictions. In this SPS agreement, countries maintain the sovereign right to provide the level of health protection they deem appropriate, but agree that this right will not be misused for protectionist purposes nor result in unnecessary trade barriers. A rule of equivalency rather than equality applies to the use of SPS measures.
Sanitation standard operating procedures (SSOPs) — Refers to the cleaning procedures that meat and poultry plants use, both before, during, and after production, to prevent contamination of products. Site-specific SSOPs were required to be implemented in January 1997 by all slaughter and processing plants, under the comprehensive pathogen reduction regulations issued by USDA in July 1996.
SARE — Sustainable Agriculture Research and Extension Program. www.sare.org/htdocs/sare/about.html.
SBP — School Breakfast Program.
SC — State Conservationist.
SC; STC — State conservationist.
Scale economies — See Economies of size.
Scaled sales — A timber sale where purchasers pay the stumpage price for the amount of timber actually removed; Forest Service personnel or an independent third-party measures the volume of timber actually removed.
SCD / SWDC — Soil Conservation District; or Soil and Water Conservation District.
SCGP — Supplier credit guarantee program.
School breakfast program — This program provides indexed cash federal subsidies for all breakfasts served in schools that choose to participate and follow federal rules as to meal service. Subsidies (reimbursements) are largest for breakfasts served free to children from households with income below 130% of the federal poverty guidelines. Smaller subsidies are paid for reduced price breakfasts offered to those from households with income between 130% and 185% of the poverty guidelines. And even smaller payments are made for meals served to those with household income above 185% of the poverty guidelines. It is permanently authorized by the Child Nutrition Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-642, as amended; 42 U.S.C. 1771 et seq.). www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/breakfast.
School food authority — This term refers to entities that run local school meal programs. They generally have separate budgets within the local school or school district. Federal school meal subsidies are paid to them, through state education agencies.
School Lunch Act — Beginning in the early 1930s federal support had been provided for school lunch programs by donations of surplus commodities, and when these dried up during World War II, by grants provided under annual appropriations laws. The National School Lunch Act of 1946 (P.L. 79-396) authorized federal cash and commodity support for school lunch and milk programs, "...as a measure of national security..." in response to claims that many American men had been rejected for military service in World War II because of diet-related health problems. The original Act established multi-year funding authority for grants to states to help finance school feeding programs. The law has been amended numerous times since its initial passage. It was re-titled the Richard B. Russell National School Lunch Act in 1998 as a tribute to the former Louisiana Senator's prominent role in the creation of school feeding programs. The Richard B. Russell National School Lunch Act (P.L. 79-396 as amended; 42 U.S.C. 1751 et seq.) permanently authorizes the School Lunch program, the Child and Adult Care Food program, commodity distribution to child nutrition providers, and the Food Service Management Institute. It also provides periodically renewed authority to operate the Summer Food Service program, pilot projects, and training and technical assistance efforts. Funding for most programs under the Act is "mandatory/entitlement;" the House Education and the Workforce Committee and the Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry have jurisdiction over most of its provisions; reauthorization normally coincides with reauthorization of provisions of the Child Nutrition Act(P.L. 89-64, as amended).
School Lunch Program — This program provides indexed cash federal subsidies for all lunches served in schools that choose to participate and follow federal rules as to meal service. Subsidies (reimbursements) are largest for lunches served free to children from households with income below 130% of the federal poverty guidelines. Smaller subsidies are paid for reduced price lunches offered to those from households with income between 130% and 185% of the poverty guidelines. And even smaller payments are made for meals served to those with household income above 185% of the poverty guidelines. The program is permanently authorized under Sections 4 and 11 of the Richard B. Russell National School Lunch Act (P.L. 79-396, as amended; 42 U.S.C. 1751 et seq.), administered by the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS). See School Lunch Act. www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/lunch/.
School meals initiative — This federally funded project provides training and guidance materials to states and schools that help them upgrade the quality of meals served in schools. www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/.
Science Advisory Board — A group of independent scientists selected by the Administrator of the EPA to advise on the scientific and technical aspects of environmental problems and issues and who, at the request of the Administrator, review the scientific aspects of any reports or other written products prepared by the agency. Congress established the Board when it enacted the Environmental Research, Development, and Demonstration Authorization Act of 1978 (P.L. 95-477). www.epa.gov/sab.
Scientific Advisory Panel — The Scientific Advisory Panel (SAP) was created on November 28, 1975, pursuant to Section 25(d) of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (7 U.S.C. 136w), to provide scientific advice on pesticides and pesticide related issues as to the impact on health and the environment of certain regulatory actions. The Food Quality Protection Act (P.L. 104-170) established a Science Review Board consisting of 60 scientists who are available to the Scientific Advisory Panel on an ad hoc basis to assist in reviews conducted by the Panel. The role of the SAP has been expanded to that of a peer review body for current scientific issues that may influence the direction of EPA's regulatory decisions. The Panel is composed of seven members who are selected on the basis of their professional qualifications to assess the impact of pesticides on health and the environment. Members are appointed by the EPA Administrator from a list of 12 nominees submitted by the National Institutes of Health and the National Academy of Sciences. www.epa.gov/scipoly/sap/about.htm.
Scrapie — A fatal, degenerative neurological disease of sheep and goats. The similarity of scrapie to bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) (mad cow) disease in cattle, with the possibility of subsequent transmission to humans, has caused the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to propose regulations to prohibit using sheep and goat by-products as a component in cattle feeds. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) also conducts a voluntary scrapie flock certification program to certify scrapie-free herds.
SDWA — Safe Drinking Water Act (42 U.S.C. 300f-300j).
SE — Salmonella enteritidis.
SEARCH Grants — A program established by the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 6301-04) to assist very small communities (under 3,000 in population) in preparing feasibility and environmental studies required to meet water and waste environmental standards. (7 U.S.C. 2009ee).
SEC — Office of the Secretary; Securities and Exchange Commission.
Second-tier Mexican sugar — The over-quota sugar exported by Mexico to the United States, subject to a North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) tariff that declines 1.5¢/lb. for raw sugar, and 1.6¢/lb. for refined sugar, each year until it enters free, effective January 1, 2008. In the interim, this sugar becomes price competitive in the U. S. market whenever the applicable tariff, when added to the world sugar price and the cost of transporting it to U.S. Gulf ports (about 1.5¢/lb.), is below the loan forfeiture level created by the U.S. sugar program. Over-quota sugar entering from countries other than Mexico is subject to a much higher tariff, which is not declining, as set under WTO rules. This prohibitive tariff, when added to the world sugar price, makes world sugar uncompetitive in price, and serves to keep it from entering the U.S. market.
Second-tier tariff — A second-tier or over-quota tariff is the much higher (usually prohibitive) tariff imposed on the quantity that enters above a product's current specified quota (or quantitative threshold). See tariff-rate quota.
Section 4 assistance — Section 4 of the Richard B. Russell National School Lunch Act (P.L. 79-396, as amended) requires that all school lunches served in schools choosing to participate in the School Lunch Program be federally subsidized at a basic rate.
Section 11 assistance — Section 11 of the Richard B. Russell National School Lunch Act (P.L. 79-396, as amended) requires school lunches served in schools opting to participate in the School Lunch Program receive federal subsidies (in addition to basic Section 4 aid) for lunches served to children from low-income households--i.e., higher subsidies for free and reduced price lunches.
Section 15 lands — These are public lands that lie outside a grazing district administered by the Bureau of Land Management under Section 15 of the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934. The BLM authorizes livestock grazing on these lands by issuing leases to private parties.
Section 201 — A section of the Trade Act of 1974 (P.L. 93-618) that permits the President to grant temporary import relief, by raising import duties or imposing nontariff barriers on goods entering the United States that injure or threaten to injure domestic industries producing like goods. This provision is the analog of GATT Article XIX, which allows GATT contracting parties to provide relief from injurious competition when temporary protection will enable the domestic industry to make adjustments to meet the competition.
Section 22 — A provision of permanent agricultural law (Agricultural Adjustment Act Amendment of 1935, P.L. 74-320) that allows the President to impose import fees or import quotas to prevent imports from non-WTO member countries from undermining the price support and supply control objectives of domestic farm programs. Legislation implementing The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture exempts NAFTA partners and WTO member countries from Section 22 quotas and fees. Under both trade agreements, the United States converted then-in-effect Section 22 restrictions into tariff-rate quotas. This effectively eliminates Section 22 as a tool to shield domestic price support operations.
Section 3 lands — Public lands within a grazing district administered by the Bureau of Land Management under Section 3 of the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934. BLM authorizes livestock grazing on these lands by issuing permits. Section 3 lands make up the vast majority of BLM-administered lands.
Section 301 — A section of the Trade Act of 1974 (P.L. 93-618) that authorizes the President to take all appropriate action, including retaliation, to obtain the removal of any act, policy, or practice of a foreign government that violates an international trade agreement or is unjustified, unreasonable, or discriminatory, and that burdens or restricts U.S. commerce. This authority provides a mechanism to respond to foreign trade barriers in the hope that removal of such barriers will boost U.S. exports. Section 301 cases can be self-initiated by the United States Trade Representative (USTR) or as the result of a petition filed by a firm or industry group. If USTR initiates a Section 301 investigation, it must seek to negotiate a settlement with foreign country in the form of compensation or elimination of the trade barrier. For cases involving trade agreements, the USTR is required to request formal dispute proceedings as provided by the trade agreements.
Section 32 — Section 32 of Agricultural Adjustment Act Amendment of 1935 (P.L. 74-320) was enacted to widen market outlets for surplus agricultural commodities as one means of strengthening farm prices. Section 32 programs are financed by a permanent appropriation equal to 30% of the import duties collected on all items entering the United States under the customs laws, plus any unused balances up to $500 million. Most of this sizeable appropriation (about $6 billion annually in recent years) is transferred by appropriators to help pay for child nutrition programs. However, a portion of Section 32 also is set aside to provide USDA with a source of discretionary funds (a contingency reserve) of several hundred million dollars annually, which it uses for emergency removals of surplus agricultural commodities, disaster relief, or other unanticipated needs that might arise during a fiscal year.
Section 4 general or basic assistance — This refers to the section of Richard B. Russell National School Lunch Act (P.L. 79-396, as amended) requiring the federal government to subsidize all lunches served through the School Lunch Program, regardless of the income of the participant. Sometimes referred to as paid or full-price lunches because children buying meals pay most of the cost, as opposed to those getting free lunches or substantially reduced price lunches.
Section 404 — A provision of the Clean Water Act (P.L. 92-500) establishing a program regulating the discharge of dredge or fill material into the nation's waters. Permits for individual dredge or fill activities are issued by the Army Corps of Engineers, subject to guidelines prepared by the EPA. Primarily because this program can impact economic development by restricting the filling of wetlands, it has been controversial. It applies to agricultural, as well as non-agricultural lands. However, normal farming operations, silviculture, and ranching activities (such as plowing, cultivating, and minor drainage, and the construction and maintenance of farm and stock ponds, irrigation and drainage ditches, and farm and forest roads) are exempted by law from the permit requirements of this program. In addition, Section 404 authorizes general permits for certain activities, including several agricultural ones, so that landowners need not apply for individual permits. For example, there are general permits for cranberry bogs and for rice culture.
Section 416 — A section of the Agricultural Act of 1949 (P.L. 89-439)that provides for the disposition of agricultural commodities held by the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) to prevent waste. Disposal is usually carried out by donation of commodities to charitable groups and foreign governments.
Section 502 loans — A rural housing loan program, administered by the Rural Housing Service (RHS), authorized under Section 502 of the Housing Act of 1949. Borrowers may obtain loans for purchasing or repairing new or existing single-family housing. Loans are made directly by RHS (7 CFR 3550) or by private lenders with a USDA guarantee (7 CFR 1980). Borrowers with income of 80% or less of the area median may be eligible for 33-year direct loans and may receive interest credit to bring the interest rate to as low as 1%. In a given fiscal year, at least 40% of the units financed under this section must be made available only to very low-income families or individuals (below 60% of the area median) with terms up to 38 years. Borrowers must have the means to repay the loans, but be unable to secure reasonable credit terms elsewhere. Borrowers with income of up to 115% of the area median may be eligible for 30-year guaranteed loans from private lenders. Priority is given to first-time home buyers, and the RHS may require that borrowers complete a home ownership counseling program.
Section 504 loans and grants — A USDA rural housing repair program authorized under Section 504 of the Housing Act of 1949. Under current regulations, rural homeowners with incomes of 50% or less of the area median may qualify for the Rural Housing Service (RHS) direct loans to repair their homes. Loans are limited to $20,000 and have a 20-year term at a 1% interest rate. Owners of age 62 or more may qualify for grants of up to $7,500 to pay for needed repairs that remove a health or safety hazard. To qualify for the grants, the elderly must be unable to obtain affordable credit elsewhere. Depending on the cost of the repairs and the income of the homeowner, the owner may be eligible for a grant for the full cost of the repairs or for some combination of a loan and a grant to covers repair costs. The combination loan and grant may total no more than $20,000.
Section 514 loans — A domestic farm labor housing program authorized under Section 514 of the Housing Act of 1949 and the only nationwide program to provide housing for farm laborers. The Rural Housing Service (RHS) makes loans to farm owners, associations of farm owners, Indian tribes, or nonprofit organizations to provide modest living quarters, basic household furnishings, and related facilities. Loans also may be used to repair existing housing for farm labor use. The loans are repayable in 33 years and bear an interest rate of 1%. Applicants, who own farms or who represent farm owners, must show that the farming operations have a demonstrated need for farm labor housing and the applicants must agree to own and operate the property on a nonprofit basis. Except for state and local public agencies or political subdivisions, the applicants must be unable to provide the housing from their own resources and unable to obtain the credit from other sources on terms and conditions that they could reasonably be expected to fulfill and still provide farmworker housing at rental rates that would be affordable to the workers. The RHS may make exceptions to the "credit elsewhere" test when: (1) there is a need in the area for housing for migrant farm workers and the applicant will provide such housing; and, (2) there is no state or local body or no nonprofit organization that, within a reasonable period of time, is willing and able to provide the housing.
Section 515 loans — A USDA rural housing program authorized under Section 515 of the Housing Act of 1949 (42 U.S.C. 1485). The Rural Housing Service (RHS) is authorized to make loans to provide rental housing for low- and moderate-income families in rural areas. Section 515 loans also may be used for congregate housing for the elderly and handicapped. Loans under Section 515 are made to individuals, corporations, associations, trusts, partnerships, or public agencies. The loans are made at 1% interest for a term of 50 years. Except for public agencies, all borrowers must demonstrate that financial assistance from other sources will not enable the borrower to provide the housing at terms that are affordable to the target population.
Section 516 grants — A USDA farm labor housing program authorized by Section 516 of the Housing Act of 1949 (42 U.S.C. 1441 et seq.). Qualified nonprofit organizations, Indian tribes, or public bodies obtain grants for the development cost of farm labor housing. Grants may be used simultaneously with Section 514 loans if the housing, for which there is a "pressing need," will not be built without assistance from the Rural Housing Service (RHS). Grants may be made for up to 90% of the development cost of the housing. In a given fiscal year, up to 10% of the Section 516 funds shall be for domestic and migrant farm worker housing. Applicants must contribute at least 10% of the total development costs from their own resources or from other sources including Section 514 loans. Funds may be used to buy, build, or improve housing and related facilities for farm workers, and to purchase and improve the land where the housing will be located, including installation of streets, water supply and waste disposal systems, parking areas, and driveways as well as for the purchase and installation of appliances such as ranges, refrigerators, and clothes washers and dryers. Related facilities may include the maintenance workshop, recreation center, small infirmary, laundry room, day care center, and office and living quarters for the resident manager.
Section 521 rental assistance — Rental assistance authorized under Section 521 of the Housing Act of 1949 (42 U.S.C. 1441 et seq.). Owners of housing financed under Section 515 or Section 514 may receive rental assistance payments from the Rural Housing Service (RHS). The assistance payments enable eligible tenants to make monthly rent payments that do not exceed the greater of: (1) 30% of monthly adjusted family income; (2) 10 percent of monthly income; or, (3) the portion of the family's welfare payment that is designated for housing costs. The rental assistance payments, which are made directly to the borrowers, make up the difference between the tenants' payments and the RHS-approved rent for the units. Borrowers must agree to operate the property on a limited profit or nonprofit basis. The term of the rental assistance agreement is 20 years for new construction projects and 5 years for existing projects. Agreements may be renewed for up to 5 years. An eligible borrower who does not participate in the program may be petitioned to participate by 20 percent or more of the tenants eligible for rental assistance.
Section 523 loans — A mutual self-help rural housing program authorized under Section 523 of the Housing Act of 1949 (42 U.S.C. 1441 et seq.) and administered by the Rural Housing Service (RHS). Nonprofit organizations may obtain 2-year loans to purchase and develop land that is to be subdivided into building sites for housing. The interest rate is 3% for these loans. Applicants must demonstrate a need for the proposed building sites in the locality. Sponsors also may obtain technical assistance (TA) grants to pay for all or part of the cost of developing, administering, and coordinating programs of technical and supervisory assistance to the families who are building their own homes. Each family is expected to contribute at least 700 hours of labor in building homes for each other. Applicants must demonstrate that: (1) there is a need for self-help housing in the area; (2) the applicant has or can hire qualified people to carry out its responsibilities under the program; and, (3) funds for the proposed TA project are not available from other sources. The program is generally limited to very low- and low-income families. Moderate income families may be eligible to participate provided they are unable to pay for a home built by the contract method. TA funds may not be used to hire construction workers or to buy real estate or building materials. Private or public nonprofit corporations, however, may be eligible for 2-year site loans under Section 523. The loans may be used to purchase and develop land in rural areas. The land is subdivided into building sites and sold on a nonprofit basis to low and moderate income families. Generally, a land loan must result in at least 10 home sites. The sites need not be contiguous. Sites financed through Section 523 may be sold only to families who are building homes by the mutual self-help method. The homes are financed through the Section 502 program.
Section 524 loans — Land acquisition and development loans authorized under Section 524 of the Housing Act of 1949 (42 U.S.C. 1441 et seq.). Nonprofit organizations and Indian tribes may obtain loans from the Rural Housing Service (RHS) to purchase and develop land that is to be subdivided into building sites for housing low- and moderate-income families. The loans are made for a 2-year period. Sites financed through Section 524 have no restrictions on the methods by which the homes are financed or constructed. The interest rate on Section 524 site loans is the Treasury cost of funds.
Section 533 grants — A USDA rural housing rehabilitation program authorized under Section 533 of the Housing Act of 1949 (42 U.S.C. 1441 et seq.). The Rural Housing Service (RHS) is authorized to make grants to capable organizations for: (1) rehabilitating single family housing in rural areas that is owned by low- and very low-income families; (2) rehabilitating rural rental properties; and, (3) rehabilitating rural cooperative housing structured to provide affordable housing to low- and very low-income occupants. The homes must be located in rural areas and be in need of housing preservation assistance. Assisted families must meet the income restrictions (income of 80% or less of the median income for the area) and must have occupied the property for at least one year prior to receiving assistance. Occupants of leased homes may be eligible for assistance if (1) the unexpired portion of the lease extends for 5 years or more, and (2) the lease permits the occupant to make modifications to the structure and precludes the owner from increasing the rent because of the modifications.
Secure Rural Schools and Community Self-Determination Act of 2000 — P.L. 106-393 amended the Forest Service's county payments program for FY2001-FY2006 to allow states or counties to choose to receive the average of the three highest payments for FY1986-FY1999 in lieu of the regular 25% payment, but requiring that15%-20% of those payments be used by the counties for specified purposes, in accordance with recommendations of resource advisory committees for projects on federal lands, or returned to the Treasury. The Forest Service county payments should not be confused with Bureau of Land Management "payments in lieu of taxes."
Sediments — Particulate material, including soil, sand, and minerals, transported and deposited by water or wind (see Erosion). Waterborne sediments cloud the water diminishing sunlight available to aquatic plants; sediments deposited in reservoirs, rivers, and harbors destroy fish and wildlife habitat and may fill shipping channels. Farming, mining, and building and construction activities that expose soil to wind and rain are major sources of sediments.
Seed bank — A facility used for the preservation and dissemination of seed, particularly varieties that are not in commercial use and that may be threatened with extinction. The USDA's seed bank is the U.S. National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS). www.ars-grin.gov/npgs.
Self-Help land development loans — Section 523 loans are for acquiring and developing land that will be used for mutual self-help housing.
Septic system — An on-site system designed to treat and dispose of domestic sewage from a residence or business not connected to a sewer line. A typical septic system consists of a tank that receives waste and holds it while bacteria decompose solids, and a system of tile lines or a pit for disposal of the liquid effluent. The sludge that remains in the tank after decomposition of the solids must be pumped out periodically. By using the assimilative capacity of the land, a properly operating septic system has minimal impact, but an improperly functioning system can be a source of nitrogen pollution and of groundwater contamination.
Set-aside program — A program (not used since the late 1970s) under which farmers were required to set aside a certain percentage of their total planted acreage and devote this land to approved conservation uses (such as grasses, legumes, and small grain which is not allowed to mature) in order to be eligible for nonrecourse loans and deficiency payments. Set-aside acreage was based on the number of acres a farmer actually planted in the program year as opposed to being based on prior crop years. The authority for set-aside was eliminated by the 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127).
SFIREG — State FIFRA Issues Research and Evaluation Group.
SFSP — Summer Food Service Program.
Sharecropper — A tenant farmer who receives a share of the crops, livestock, or livestock products from the landowner, who in turn may extend credit to and supervises the tenant. The tenant generally supplies only labor.
Shared Appreciation Agreement (SAA) — An agreement between the USDA and farmer borrowers, instituted when a borrower is severely delinquent on making payments on Farm Service Agency (FSA) real estate loans. Such an agreement allows for the forgiveness of a portion or all of the indebtedness, in return for the borrower sharing with USDA at the end of the term a portion of any appreciation in the farmer-owned real estate that served as collateral for the loan. SAAs were instituted as part of the Agricultural Credit Act of 1987 (P. L. 100-233) for the purpose of avoiding foreclosure due to the drop in land prices at that time.
Sheep Promotion, Research, and Information Act of 1994 — P.L. 103-407 enabled sheep producers and feeders and importers of sheep and sheep products to develop, finance, and carry out a nationally coordinated program for sheep and sheep product promotion, research, and information. This law was enacted a year after passage of legislation to phase out the wool and mohair commodity programs (new support programs for wool and mohair were included in the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171)). The USDA was authorized to issue a sheep and wool promotion, research, education, and information order subject to approval referenda among producers, feeders, and importers. In a 1996 referendum, the proposed check-off program was defeated. About 53% of nearly 12,000 ballots opposed the order. This group represented 67% of the production that voted.
Sheet erosion — One of three types of water erosion, where the removal of a thin, relatively uniform layer of soil from the land surface is caused by runoff. See Rill erosion, and Gully erosion.
Shelterbelt — A plant barrier of trees, shrubs, or other approved perennial vegetation designed to reduce wind erosion. Also called a windbreak.
Sherman Anti-Trust Act — The 1890 law is considered the foundation of federal anti-monopoly policy (15 U.S.C. 1 et seq.). Passed partly as an outgrowth of congressional investigations into alleged price collusion among large meat packers, the law generally prohibited restraint of trade and monopolistic practices in all industries, including agribusiness. The Capper-Volstead Act (7 U.S.C. 291, 292) later exempted agricultural cooperatives from certain provisions of the Sherman Act and the subsequent Clayton Act.(15 U.S.C. 12 et seq.).
Shipping holiday — A fruit and vegetable marketing order feature that prohibits the commercial shipping of the regulated commodity during periods following certain holidays when demand is historically low, such as the several days after Thanksgiving and Christmas.
SHOP — See Small Hog Operation Payment.
Short line railroad — Any freight railroad that cannot be classified as a Class 1 or regional railroad. A railroad company that can originate and terminate freight traffic on its line and is generally less than 100 miles in length.
Short selling — Selling a futures contract with the idea of delivering on it or offsetting it at a later date.
Short Term Export Credit Guarantee Program (GSM-102) — One of the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) export credit guarantee programs. See GSM-102.
Short ton — Two thousand pounds. By contrast, a long ton equals 2,240 pounds. A metric ton (MT) equals 2,204.62 pounds.
Short — (1) The selling side of an open futures contract; (2) a trader whose net position in the futures market shows an excess of open sales over open purchases. See Long.
SIC — Standard industrial classification (see North American Industry Classification System). www.census.gov/epcd/www/naics.html.
Side letter — See Sugar side letter.
Sign-up period — A USDA-prescribed time period, usually lasting several months, when farmers can enroll in a commodity program or other farm program.
Silage — Silage is the feedstuff produced by the fermentation of a crop, forage, or agricultural byproduct of generally greater than 50% moisture content. Ensiling is the name given to the process, and the container (if used) is called a silo. Producing annuals for silage is similar to producing them for commercial seed or grain except that crop inputs are directed to optimizing total dry matter yield. Loan deficiency payments (but not marketing assistance loans) are available for silage made from loan commodities under provisions of the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 1205(a)(2)) (7 U.S.C. 7935).
Silt — Sedimentary materials composed of fine or intermediate-sized mineral particles. Erosion carries silt from cropland to streams and rivers, which can accumulate behind dams and diminish there effectiveness.
Silvicultural activities — Silviculture is the branch of forestry that deals with the development and care of forests. Silvicultural activities (such as tree planting, thinning, prescribed burning, and timber cutting) modify forest vegetation to achieve desired goals (e.g., timber production, good forest health, wildlife habitat).
Single-line service — Service by a single railroad between two locations.
SIP — Stewardship Incentives Program.
Site loans — Section 523 loans and Section 524 loans are for acquiring and developing land for low- and moderate-income rural residents.
Slotting fees — Fees paid by manufacturers to purchase shelf space in retail food stores. Such fees are a controversial issue in the food sector. Critics regard slotting fees as unearned store discounts (or even kickbacks to stores) that give a competitive edge to larger manufacturers who can afford them, while depriving consumers of variety, new product innovations, and possibly more competitive retail pricing. Supporters of the fees contend that they enable stores to make room for the thousands of new product introductions annually. Otherwise, grocers would have to shoulder the risk of stocking items that might not sell.
Small farm — Although there is no official, widely accepted definition of a small farm, the Small Farms Commission described it, for purposes of its 1997 study, as one with less than $250,000 in gross receipts annually on which day-to-day labor and management are provided by the farmer and/or the farm family that owns the production, or owns or leases the productive assets. In 2000, such farms accounted for about 90% of the more than 2.1 million U.S. farms, but only about 40% of U.S. farm production. The concentration of production on fewer and larger operations, is a longstanding concern among some segments of the agricultural community, while others view these changes as inevitable, and even necessary to maintain the efficiency and competitiveness of the sector. Farm typology analysis by ERS divides the small family farm category into five groups: limited-resource farms; retirement farms; residential/lifestyle farms; farming occupation/lower-sales, and farming occupation/high-sales. See Farm typology.
Small Farms, National Commission on — A 30-member panel appointed by the Secretary of Agriculture in 1997 to examine the status and needs of small farms in the United States. The Commission presented its findings, which included nearly 150 specific recommendations for action, to the Secretary in a January 1998 reported entitled A Time to Act.
Small Hog Operation Payment (SHOP) — A 1999 program, funded through USDA's Section 32 account and administered by the Department's Farm Service Agency, that provided approximately $178 million in direct payments to hog producers to compensate them for low hog prices in late 1998. Under the ad hoc program, producers were eligible for up to $10 per hog on the first 500 hogs marketed during the last 6 months of 1998. Operations marketing 2,500 or more hogs during that period, those with 1998 gross income greater than $2.5 million, and those with certain marketing contracts were not eligible. USDA had first announced the program, using its existing administrative authority, in January 1999, with payments set at $5 per head and total spending to be $50 million. Both the Administration and Congress (via an emergency farm relief package that was part of the FY2000 USDA appropriation, P.L. 106-78) later sanctioned the expanded payments.
Small Watershed Program — A program created under the Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act (P.L. 83-566), and 1 of 3 programs that are combined into the Watershed and Flood Prevention Operations Program. The Small Watershed Program is available in watersheds that are smaller than 250,000 acres. Currently, there are 515 active projects in this program. www.ga.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/wffp.html.
Small Watershed Rehabilitation Program — The Grain Standards and Warehouse Improvement Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-472, Sec 313) authorized cost-sharing to rehabilitate aging structural measures that are part of water resources projects (including structures built under the watershed and flood prevention operations program area of the Natural Resources Conservation Service). The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 2505) authorizes mandatory funding from the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) of $45 million in FY2003, rising by $5 million each year through FY2007, and appropriations of $45 million in FY2003, increasing by $10 million each year through FY2007.
Smart Growth — A catch-all term for public policies that selectively use financial and other public incentives to influence the density and pattern of new development. The goal is to encourage development in specified areas (typically where infrastructure, such as roads, schools and public utilities, are already in place) and discourage (not prohibit) it in other areas.
Smith-Lever Act of 1914 — P.L. 63-95 authorized and provided initial funding for states to establish an educational outreach arm to extend the results of research programs at the land grant colleges of agriculture and their affiliated state agricultural experiment stations to all citizens who might benefit from them (7 U.S.C. 341 et seq.). In 1962 Congress amended the act to establish a formula for distributing federal funds to states for agricultural extension programs. The formula provides for each state to receive what it received in 1962 as a base. Funds appropriated in excess of the 1962 level are allocated as follows: 4% of funds go to the federal component of the Cooperative Extension System (now part of the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES)); of the remainder, 20% is allocated to each state equally; and 80% is allocated on the basis of a state's share of the U.S. rural and farm populations. On average, Smith-Lever formula funds account for about 30% of a state's total funding for extension programs.
Smoot-Hawley — See Tariff Act of 1930 (P.L. 71-361).
SMP — Special Milk Program.
Snapback — The reimposition of an earlier and usually higher tariff. Various indicators (price movements, quantity movements) have been used as triggers for snapbacks. Rules governing the use of snapbacks are usually spelled out in trade agreements.
SNE — Society for Nutrition Education. www.sne.org.
SOAP — Sunflowerseed Oil Assistance Program.
Socially disadvantaged farmers and ranchers — For the purposes of USDA outreach and assistance, these are defined under the 1990 farm bill (P.L. 101-624) as members of a socially disadvantaged group, which is defined to mean those whose identity in a group has subjected them to racial or ethnic prejudice without regard to their individual identity. For the purposes of loan eligibility, Section 355(e) of the Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act, as amended by P.L. 102-554, Sec. 21(b), adds gender to the definition of a socially disadvantaged group. (7 U.S.C. 2003).
SOCMA — Synthetic Organic Chemicals Manufacturing Association. www.socma.com.
Sodbuster — A program created by Title 12 of the Food Security Act of 1985 (P.L. 99-198) designed to discourage the plowing up of erosion-prone grasslands for use as cropland. If such highly erodible land is used for crop production without proper conservation measures as laid out in a conservation plan, a producer may lose eligibility to participate in farm programs.
Soil and Water Conservation Act (RCA) — A 1977 law (P.L. 95-192) that requires USDA to periodically prepare a national plan for soil and water conservation on private lands based on an inventory and appraisal of existing resource conditions and trends. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) is the lead agency in this effort, and completed appraisals in the early 1980s and late 1980s; a third appraisal was initiated in the early 1990s, but not completed. Only one national plan was adopted by USDA, in 1982. Many of the activities envisioned when the RCA was enacted are being carried out, but it has not resulted in a single omnibus plan addressing conservation needs and priorities on private lands.
Soil and Water Conservation District (SWDC) — See Conservation District.
Soil Bank Act — Title I of the Agricultural Act of 1956 (P.L. 84-540), designated the Soil Bank Act, created the Acreage Reserve Program to retire land producing basic commodities under an annual agreement from 1956 through 1959, and the Conservation Reserve Program, to retire agricultural land under contracts of 3, 5, or 10 years. The Soil Bank Act was repealed by the Food and Agriculture Act of 1965 (P.L. 89-321, Sec. 601). Nevertheless, this early conservation reserve served as the model for the current Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), which was enacted in the Food Security Act of 1985 (P.L. 99-198, Sec. 1231-1236).
Soil Bank Program — A federal program (authorized by the Soil Bank Act, P.L. 84-540, Title I) of the late 1950s and early 1960s that paid farmers to retire land from production for 10 years. The predecessor to today's Conservation Reserve Program. The maximum enrollment was 28.7 million acres in 1960. Some elements in the CRP, such as a limit on CRP acres per county, were a response to the Soil Bank experience.
Soil conditioner — An organic material like humus or compost that helps soil absorb water, build a bacterial community, and take up mineral nutrients.
Soil conservation district — A legal subdivision of state government, with a locally elected governing body, responsible for developing and carrying out a program of soil and water conservation within a geographic boundary, usually coinciding with county lines. The nearly 3,000 districts in the United States have varying names (soil conservation districts, soil and water conservation districts, natural resources districts, resource districts, resource conservation districts).
Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936 — P.L. 74-46 was designed to support farm income by making soil-conservation and soil-building payments to participating farmers. This design replaced the taxes on processors in the support program authorized by the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933, which the courts judged to be unconstitutional. The 1936 Act supported farm income and reduced surpluses by paying farmers for shifting from crops in excess supply (soil depleting crops) to soil building crops like legumes and grasses. This law, as amended, continues to serve as the enabling authority for a number of activities and programs carried out by the Natural Resources Conservation Service.
Soil Conservation Service (SCS) — Replaced by a new USDA agency, the Natural Resources Conservation Service after USDA reorganization in 1994. Responsibilities include carrying out technical assistance programs in cooperation with soil conservation districts to improve and conserve soil and water resources, and operating related programs such as the national soil survey and the natural resources inventory.
Soil loss tolerance (T value) — For a specific soil, the maximum average annual soil loss expressed as tons per acre per year that will permit current production levels to be maintained economically and indefinitely. T values range from 2 to 5 tons per acre per year. According to the 1997 national resources inventory, about 77 million acres of cropland is eroding at 2T or greater, and more than 27 million acres are eroding at more than 8T.
Soil moisture zone — Depth of soil from which plant roots extract water.
Soil quality / health — Soil quality includes consideration of measures related to both productivity for crops and environmental factors.
Soil series — A group of soils having horizons (or layers) similar in characteristics and arrangement in the soil profile, except for the texture of the surface portion. They are given proper names from place names within the areas where they occur. Thus, Norfolk, Miami, and Houston are names of some well-known soil series.
Soil solarization — Fumigating and warming soil by covering it with black plastic. This is an alternative pest control technique being investigated as an alternative to the use of methyl bromide (a chemical fumigant used in Florida tomato production and for other speciality crops, which will be phased out of use because of its ozone depleting effects).
Soil sterilant — A chemical that temporarily or permanently prevents the growth of all plants and animals, depending on the chemical. Soil sterilants must be registered as pesticides.
Soil Survey Program — A program of the Natural Resources Conservation Service to inventory soil resources as a basis for determining land capabilities and conservation treatments that are needed, provide soil information to the public (primarily through maps), and provide technical support to those who use soils information. More than 90% of the private lands have been mapped. In FY2001, maps were prepared or updated on 21.9 million acres, including 25 counties or areas for the first time.
Soil — About 70,000 kinds of soil are recognized in the nationwide system of classification. Each has a unique set of characteristics and a potential for use. These characteristics are important in designing a conservation plan to protect the soil from erosion if it is being cultivated. The Natural Resources Conservation Service is responsible for mapping the United States by soil type, through the Soil Survey Program.
Sole source bid — This refers to the required bidding process for infant formula sold through the WIC program. It offers an infant formula manufacturer the option of bidding to be the only provider of infant formula contained in WIC food packages in the state. Contracts must be awarded to the company that offers the lowest price (or largest discount) on its infant formula.
Solid waste — Non-liquid, non-soluble materials ranging from municipal garbage to industrial wastes that contain complex and sometimes hazardous substances. Solid wastes also include sewage sludge, agricultural refuse, demolition wastes, and mining residues. Technically, solid waste also refers to liquids and gases in containers. The disposal of solid waste is regulated by the EPA under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (P.L. 94-580, as amended).
Solid Waste Disposal Act — See Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. (42 U.S.C. 6901 et seq.).
SOPs — Standard operating procedures.
Sound science — A phrase generally used in a political context to rhetorically challenge the validity of the other side's arguments. The phrase has arisen in agricultural trade disputes when a country imposes a sanitary or phytosanitary (SPS) measure that an exporting group claims is an unfair trade barrier because it is not based on sound science. Often, policymakers or adjudicators are asked to make decisions based, at least in part, on which side's scientific arguments appear to be the most convincing. However, the phrase sound science is not included in public laws or international treaties. Under the Uruguay Round's Sanitary or phytosanitary (SPS) agreement, countries' SPS measures must be based on scientific principles, and may not be maintained without scientific evidence. However, the agreement does not define scientific. Under general principles of international law, the interpretation of the term is left to good faith and ordinary dictionary definitions. By requiring only that measures be based on scientific principles, as broadly understood and accepted by the scientific community, the agreement, therefore, does not expect those who are adjudicating trade disputes to choose which science is the sound science.
Soup Kitchen-Food Bank Program — Originally authorized under the Hunger Prevention Act of 1988 (P.L. 100-435) to buy commodities for soup kitchens and food banks not participating in the Emergency Food Assistance Program (EFAP). This program was consolidated with EFAP by an amendment to the Emergency Food Assistance Act of 1983 (P.L. 98-92) that was enacted as part of the 1996 welfare reform law (Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (P.L. 104-193)). Program authority was extended through FY2007 by the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 4126).
Southern Dairy Compact — An agreement among southern states, modeled on the Northeast Interstate Dairy Compact, that would allow member states to jointly establish a minimum farm price for fluid milk that is above the federally mandated minimum price level in the region. Many southern state legislatures approved state membership in the compact. However, the required congressional authority to form a compact was never granted.
Soybean Rust — Asian soybean rust (ASR) is a harmful fungal disease that can infect and reproduce on over 90 plant species, most notably soybeans. Wind-borne spores can spread rapidly and the disease can reduce soybean yields by 10-80% in infected areas. The pathogen has been most destructive in Asia, Africa, Australia, and recently (2002) South America. ASR is not known to occur in the continental United States; however, its airborne arrival by upper atmosphere wind currents is expected within the next few years. Once established, eradication is unlikely because the pathogen can infect and reproduce on so many plant species. As a result, the most effective treatment is thought to be the development and use of resistant varieties. However, no commercial soybean cultivar is resistant to or tolerant of ASR. In the short term, the only effective responses are costly fungicides and the use of early maturing soybean cultivars. As of February 2004, only two fungicides are presently registered with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for control of rust on soybeans. However, independent efficacy data are still needed to confirm their effectiveness against ASR. Meanwhile some states are trying to obtain EPA Section 18 registrations (granting temporary emergency use rights) for fungicides presently in use overseas against ASR. USDA is coordinating a plan to deal with ASR that encompasses various USDA agencies, state land-grant universities, and industry participants.
Soybeans — Soybeans are considered a covered commodity and federal support is available under authority of the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Title I) in the form of marketing assistance loan benefits, direct payments, and counter-cyclical payments. Soybeans are the largest oilseed crop in the world and the United States is the world's leading producer. Farmers harvested about 72 million acres of soybeans (slightly more than the 71 million acre corn harvest) in 2003. The six leading states account for 67% of national production (according to 2003 crop data): Illinois (15%), Iowa (14%), Minnesota (9%), Indiana (8%), Nebraska (7%), Ohio (7%), Missouri (6%). Most soybeans are crushed into oil that is refined for edible consumption and meal that is used for high protein poultry and hog feed. Comparatively small portions of the crop go to other food and industrial uses. About 35% of the crop is exported as beans. Familiar soy (or soya) foods include salad oil and margarine, tofu, soy sauce, and soymilk. Typically, in the United States, soybeans are measured and priced in bushels (1 bushel = 60 pounds).
Special Agricultural Safeguard (SSG) — A provision in the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture. The SSG allows Member countries to impose additional tariffs on agricultural products if their import volume exceeds defined trigger levels, or if prices fall below specified trigger levels. Its purpose is to prevent disruption of domestic markets due to import surges or abnormally low import prices. The SSG applies only to products that are (1) subject to tarrification and (2) in cases where the country has designated a product as eligible for the SSG in its Schedule of Commitments. It can apply only to imports that exceed tariff-rate quota volumes. The SSG is an alternative to the general safeguard provision of the GATT and is easier to invoke because it does not require a test of injury or threat of injury. In the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) negotiations, the United States, the Cairns Group, and many developing countries have proposed elimination of the SSG.
Special and differential treatment (S&D) — A set of GATT provisions (GATT 1947, Article XVIII) that exempts developing countries from the same strict trade rules and disciplines of more industrialized countries. In the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture, for example, developing countries are given longer time periods to phase in export subsidy and tariff reductions than the more industrialized countries. The least developed countries are exempt from any reduction commitments.
Special Milk Program — Offers federal reimbursements for each half-pint of milk served to a child in a participating outlet, which generally is any school or facility caring for children that does not participate in other federally subsidized meal programs. There is an exception from this limitation for kindergarten children in split session programs. The program is permanently authorized under the Child Nutrition Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-642, as amended; 42 U.S.C. 1771 et seq.). Schools may offer free milk to children meeting free lunch income requirements, if they choose, and this milk is reimbursed at full cost. Otherwise, children buy so-called paid milk, which is subsidized at a legislatively set rate for each half-pint served. This program is administered by the Food and Nutrition Service, and funded by annual agricultural appropriations.
Special review — Formerly known as Rebuttable Presumption Against Registration (RPAR), this is a regulatory process through which existing pesticides suspected of posing unreasonable risks to human health, non-target organisms, or the environment are referred for review by the EPA. Such review requires an intensive risk/benefit analysis with opportunity for public comment. If risk is found to outweigh social and economic benefits, regulatory actions (ranging from label revisions and use-restriction to cancellation or suspended registration) can be initiated.
Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) — WIC is a federal discretionary grant program for states and Indian Tribal Organizations to operate projects that provide food vouchers, nutrition education, and other services (e.g., breastfeeding education, referral to medical assistance) to pregnant and postpartum women and their infants and children (up to age 5). Unlike other food assistance programs, eligible WIC participants must meet both low-income and "nutritional risk" tests. Food vouchers generally are tailored to individual recipients' nutritional needs, and the WIC program normally is run through local health clinics. It is authorized under the Child Nutrition Act (P.L. 89-642, as amended) , under the jurisdiction of the House Education and the Workforce Committee and the Senate Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry Committee, and funded through annual Agriculture Department appropriations.
Specialty crops — A crop category that is not precisely defined. The USDA's Economic Research Service classifies specialty crops as all farm commodities other than livestock and field crops (wheat, corn, rice, cotton). This definition would include all fruits and vegetables and horticultural crops. However, that same agency sometimes defines specialty crops as those not generally considered to be mainstream. Examples include minor vegetables such as okra, chile peppers, pumpkins; tropical vegetables; and tropical fruits such as carambola (star fruit).
Specialty produce — Within the produce industry this term refers to fruits and vegetables that reflect ethnic influences; that have international origins; that have limited market share; and that have limited appeal and recognition. Specialty produce is often referred to as exotic or new.
Species — Species represent the lowest and most important of the primary groupings used in classifying plants, animals, and microorganisms. While no single definition applies to all organisms, biologists rely principally on (1) morphological and genetic similarities and (2), for sexually reproducing organisms, the capability of interbreeding with one another but not other groups. If different species do interbreed, the offspring, if any, are often sterile. Biologists give species unique, binomial names: a generic name that includes closely related species, and a species-specific name. The horse, for example, is Equus caballus; the donkey or ass is Equus asinus. (Their offspring, the mule, is sterile.) As populations of organisms vary geographically and change over time (becoming extinct, or splitting or evolving into new species), species classifications are neither absolute nor immutable; where some biologists see variations within a species (and may designate subspecies), others may see separate species. About 1.5 to 2 million species have been named, but scientists estimate the total number of species could be 5 to 100 million, many of them probably undiscovered microorganisms. The Endangered Species Act (ESA) protects species designated as endangered or threatened with extinction; these protections prohibit taking endangered species and can include restrictions on habitat alterations, such as logging or water pollution (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.). Because of the way species is defined in the ESA, policy debates have arisen over whether certain groups of organisms qualify for listing (e.g., northern goshawks and the Alexander Archipelago wolf).
Specific rate duty — A tariff levied on imports, defined in terms of a specific amount per unit, such as cents per kilogram. By contrast, an ad valorem duty is a charge levied on imports defined in terms of a fixed percentage of value.
Specified risk materials (SRMs) — A term that came into being as part of USDA's regulatory response to the first confirmed U.S. BSE case in December 2003, signifying parts of cattle carcasses that cannot be inspected and passed for human food because scientists have determined that BSE-causing prions concentrate there. Under the new regulations (69 FR 1862, January 12, 2004), SRMs are: the brain, skull, eyes, trigeminal ganglia, spinal cord, vertebral column (with some exclusions), dorsal root ganglia (DRG) of cattle 30 months of age and older, and the tonsils and distal ileum of the small intestine of all cattle.
Speculator — In commodity trading, an individual who does not hedge, but who trades in futures contracts with the objective of achieving profits through the successful anticipation of price movements. Speculators serve the useful economic function of sharing the financial risks of price instability.
Spot commodity — The actual commodity as distinguished from a futures contract. Sometimes used to refer to cash commodities available for immediate delivery.
Spot market — A public or open marketplace (such as open exchanges or auction houses) where products (including agricultural products such as livestock, grain, cotton, etc.) are bought and sold. The Minneapolis Grain Exchange and the now defunct National Cheese Exchange are examples. Spot also refers to a maturing delivery month of a futures contract.
Spot price — The price at which a physical commodity for immediate delivery is selling at a given time and place. See Cash price.
Spread (or straddle) — The purchase of a futures contract of one delivery month against the sale of another futures delivery month of the same commodity; the purchase of one delivery month of one commodity against the sale of that same delivery month of a different commodity; or the purchase of one commodity in one market against the sale of the commodity in another market, to take advantage of a profit from a change in price relationships. The term spread is also used to refer to the difference between the price of a futures month and the price of another month of the same commodity. A spread can also apply to options contracts.
Sprout damage — Undesirable germination of wheat kernels that occurs on mature, unharvested wheat when wet field conditions persist just prior to and during the harvest. Mature wheat that has been cut and left laying in the field prior to threshing is particularly vulnerable to sprout damage. Early cold weather in Canada often forces wheat producers there to cut and windrow their crop to allow for drying. Wet conditions can then cause widespread sprout damage. If has occurred, there is a dramatic increase of the enzyme alpha-amylase. The falling numbers test is a measure of the presence of this enzyme. A high falling number indicates that the wheat is sound and satisfactory for most baking processes. A low falling number indicates that harmful sprouting has occurred and is suggestive of reduced baking quality. In bread, too much alpha-amylase activity will cause wet sticky bread crumb with large voids in the loaf and too little causes dry crumble bread crumb and high loaf density.
SPS — Sanitary and phytosanitary.
SRM — Society for Range Management. www.rangelands.org/ScriptContent/Index.cfm. Also, see Specified risk materials.
SSOPs — Sanitation standard operating procedures.
SSSA — Soil Science Society of America. www.soils.org.
Stabilization funds — In Canada, stabilization funds are the financing mechanism for commodity-specific or multi-commodity support programs. Revenues may come from a combination of producer, federal, and in some cases provincial premiums. If a stabilization fund runs a deficit, the federal Ministry of Finance may lend it money at market interest rates.
Stabilization payments — Budgetary payments made to compensate Canadian farmers for falling farm prices and/or incomes. Stabilization programs include insurance or safety nets or underwriting schemes intended to compensate farmers for decreases in price, income or cash flow due to disturbances to yields (from drought, for example) or instability of input and commodity markets.
Staged tariff reductions — See Baskets.
Standard Reinsurance Agreement (SRA) — USDA allows private insurance companies that participate in the federal crop insurance program to transfer a portion of their risk to the federal government. The standard reinsurance agreement establishes the terms and conditions under which the federal government will provide subsidies and reinsurance on eligible crop insurance contracts sold or reinsured by the insurance company named on the agreement.
Standards of identity for food — Mandatory, federally-set requirements that determine what a food product must contain in order to be marketed under a certain name in interstate commerce. Mandatory standards (which differ from voluntary grades and standards applied to agricultural commodities) protect the consumer by ensuring that a label accurately reflects what's inside (for example, that mayonnaise is not an imitation spread, or that ice cream is not a similar, but different, frozen dessert).
Staple — A commodity that is widely and regularly produced and consumed (i.e., wheat, rice, potatoes). A term used to designated the length of fiber in cotton and wool.
StarLink — StarLinkTM is a corn variety that has been genetically modified to contain an insecticidal protein derived from a naturally occurring bacterium (Bacillus thuringiensis, or Bt). The Environmental Protection Agency approved this gene-spliced variety of yellow corn in 1998 for use only as animal feed and set a zero-tolerance level for its use in human food based on the fact that this particular Bt protein does not break down easily in the human digestive system, is heat resistant, and could prove allergenic. Nevertheless, StarLink corn was detected in taco shells in mid-September 2000. The occurrence became the first U.S. test case of contamination of the food supply by a genetically-modified organism, raising questions about the effectiveness of U.S. biotechnology regulatory policies.
State Administrative Expenses (SAE) — Four domestic food assistance programs provide federal funding for state administrative expenses related to nutrition programs. Under the Food Stamp program, states are paid half the cost of administration. The Child Nutrition Act requires that states receive dollar amounts tied to the funding they receive for child nutrition activities. Under the Emergency Food Assistance program, states receive a specific money for administrative/food distribution costs linked to the value of food commodities they get. And the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (the WIC program) includes provisions that grant state WIC agencies a formula grant to cover nutrition services and administration.
State agricultural experiment stations (SAES) — The Hatch Act of 1887 authorized the establishment of an agricultural experiment station, to be affiliated with the land grant college of agriculture, in each state (7 U.S.C. 361a et seq.). Research done at these stations underpins the curriculum of the colleges, as well as the programs of the Cooperative Extension System.
State and Private Forestry — A branch of the Forest Service providing technical and financial assistance to states and to private landowners for forest management, for fire protection, and for forest health.
State Fire Assistance — A State & Private Forestry program under which the Forest Service provides financial and technical assistance to states for grants and agreements to improve fire protection of non-federal lands.
State inspection programs — Often refers to the state-run meat and poultry inspection programs to which USDA contributes 50% of the cost. State programs (fewer than half the states have them) must be certified by USDA to be at least equal to federal inspection requirements. However, products from state-inspected plants (most of them are relatively smaller operations) cannot be sold outside of the state. Small plants and many state officials have endorsed bills in Congress that would permit state-inspected products to be sold into interstate and foreign commerce, but large meat and poultry companies (which must comply with federal inspection regulations) generally oppose such a change.
State rural development block grant — Under provisions of the Rural Community Advancement Program (RCAP), each state may receive, for direct administration, up to 10% of the funds allocated to the state. These funds may be used to establish a state administered block grant. The first 5% of the state block grant allocated does not require the community to make a matching fund contribution. A state may receive the additional 5% if it provides $2 in matching funds for every $1 in RCAP funds it would receive.
State rural development councils — A collaborative partnership comprised of representatives of the federal, state, local, and tribal governments, the private sector, and the nonprofit sector. Councils are created by a memorandum of understanding between USDA and the state Governor. The councils' purpose is to promote rural development within the state.
State technical committee — Advisory groups to state conservationists (coordinators of all Natural Resources Conservation Service activities within a state) created in the 1990 farm bill (P.L. 101-624) and amended in the 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127). These groups can include representatives from agencies, agriculture, agribusiness, and non-profits, as well as individuals with a demonstrated expertise. Responsibilities assigned by the 1996 farm bill include establishing procedures for evaluating petitions on new conservation practices and identifying priority areas for the Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP) and Wetland Reserve Program (WRP).
State trading enterprises (STEs) — STEs are enterprises authorized to engage in trade (exporting and/or importing) that are owned, sanctioned, or otherwise supported by government. STEs are legitimate trading entities and are subject to GATT rules. Examples include the Canadian Wheat Board, the Australian Wheat Board, and the Fonterra Cooperative Group in New Zealand. Some U.S. agricultural producers think, however, that STEs through their exercise of monopoly power and government support may distort trade in their respective commodities.
STB — Surface Transportation Board. www.stb.dot.gov.
STC — State technical committee; state conservationist.
STE — State trading enterprise.
Steagall Amendment of 1941 — P.L. 77-144 required price support for many nonbasic commodities at 85% of parity or higher. In 1942, the minimum rate was increased to 90% of parity and was required to be continued for 2 years after the end of World War II. The Steagall commodities included hogs, eggs, chickens (with certain exceptions), turkeys, milk, butterfat, certain dry peas, certain dry edible beans, soybeans, flaxseed and peanuts for oil, American-Egyptian (ELS) cotton, potatoes, and sweet potatoes.
Step 2 payments — One of the three cotton competitiveness provisions intended to keep U.S. cotton competitive in domestic and export markets (initially authorized by the 1990 farm bill (P.L. 101-624). Under the Step 2 provision, USDA is required to issue marketing certificates (or cash payments in lieu of certificates) to domestic users of upland cotton for documented purchases, and to exporters of upland cotton for documented sales, when certain U.S. cotton pricing benchmarks are exceeded. The payments provide a subsidy to U.S. cotton users and exporters so that U.S. rather than foreign cotton will be utilized, even when U.S. cotton is higher-priced. The 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127) and the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171, Sec. 1208) continued the Step 2 provisions.
Stewardship, end-results contracting — an approach to national forest management wherein timber sales can be expanded to require purchasers to perform additional silvicultural activities. Such goods-for-services contracts have been authorized by Congress on a limited basis in several of the annual Department of the Interior and Related Agencies Appropriations Acts. (The Forest Service has been funded in these Acts since the 1950s.).
Stewardship Incentives Program (SIP) — A program administered by the Forest Service through the Farm Service Agency that provided up to 75% cost sharing for silvicultural activities implementing approved renewable resource plans. The program was terminated in the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171), and replaced with the Forest Land Enhancement Program (FLEP).
Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act — Enacted in response to concerns about increasing hunger, homelessness, and unemployment, this Act (P.L. 100-77, July 22, 1987) authorized federal funding to support housing, food assistance, and job training.
Stocker cattle — Calves or older animals maintained, often on pasture or rangeland, to increase weight and maturity before being placed in a feedlot.
Stockholm Convention Persistent Organic Pollutants — The 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international agreement negotiated under the auspices of the United Nations "to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants(POPs) worldwide. Although the United States has signed the treaty, prior to U.S. ratification, the Senate must give its advice and consent, and Congress must enact enabling (also known as implementing) legislation. Legislation is needed to resolve inconsistencies between provisions of the Stockholm Convention, the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (PIC Convention), and the Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants, and existing U.S. laws (specifically the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)). www.pops.int.
Stocking rate — The number of specific kinds and classes of livestock grazing or using a unit of land for a specified time. Not the same as carrying capacity.
Stocks, grain — Commercial grain stocks include domestic grain in storage in public and private elevators at important markets and grain afloat in vessels or barges in lake and seaboard ports. Commercial stocks plus government-owned stocks constitute total stocks. Information on grain stock levels is half of the supply demand equation that determines price levels.
Stocks-to-use ratio (S/U) — A convenient measure of supply and demand interrelationships of commodities. This ratio indicates the level of carryover stock for any given commodity as a percentage of the total use of the commodity.
Strategic grain reserve — National grain stocks held in reserve intentionally by government programs for the purpose of meeting future domestic and international needs. See Food Security Commodity Reserve, Food Security Wheat Reserve, Farmer-Owned Grain Reserve, Bill Emerson Humanitarian Trust.
Strike price (exercise or contract price) — The price, specified in the option contract, at which the underlying futures contract or commodity will move from seller to buyer.
Strip tillage — Planting and tillage operations that are limited to a strip not to exceed one-third of the distance between rows. The area between is left untilled with a protective cover of crop residue on the surface for erosion control.
Stripcropping — Growing crops in a systematic arrangement of strips or bands, usually parallel to the land's contour, that serve as barriers to wind and water erosion.
Structural funds — Funds intended to facilitate structural adjustment of some sectors and/or some specific regions in the EU. They include the European Regional Development Fund (ERF), the European Social Fund (ESF), the Guidance Section of European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF) and the Financial Instrument for Fisheries Guidance (FIFG). Assistance is concentrated on six priority objectives that are implemented through programs proposed by the appropriate authorities of the member states (National Initiative programs). The EC also co-finances other programs on subjects proposed by the EC (Community Initiatives). Rural areas mainly benefit from the EAGGF Guidance Section.
Structural practices — Conservation practices that involve either construction of a facility, such as a structure to handle animal waste, or modification of the land surface, such as building contours, to prevent degradation of soil, water, or related resources.
Structure of agriculture — The characteristics of the farm sector; most often used in describing changes in the number, size distribution, production traits, and business composition (i.e., type of ownership) of farms and agribusiness firms. Structural change is an agricultural policy issue because of concerns over its economic and social impacts on farmers, rural communities, consumers, and others.
Stubble-mulching — Leaving the stubble or crop residue essentially in place on the land as a surface cover during a fallow period. Stubble-mulching can prevent erosion from wind or water and conserve soil moisture.
Stumpage price (or stumpage rate) — The agreed-upon price, usually in dollars per thousand board feet (mbf), between a private timber purchaser and the federal agency for the right to cut and remove trees and/or logs from the federal lands.
Stunning — The practice of rendering livestock unconscious before slaughter, in keeping with the provisions of the Humane Methods of Slaughter Act (7 U.S.C. 1901), which the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) is mandated to uphold under the Federal Meat Inspection Act (21 U.S.C. 603 (b)). No similar provision exists in the Poultry Products Inspection Act (21 U.S.C. 451 et seq.). After confirmation of the first U.S. BSE case, FSIS issued regulations (69 FR 1887, January 12, 2004) prohibiting the use of the most widely used stunning device (air-injection captive bolt stun gun) because the compressed air (in contrast to the blank cartridge-driven or non-penetrating captive bolt) has been shown to force pieces of brain and other central nervous system (CNS) tissue into the bloodstream. Cattle blood is processed primarily for use as a protein supplement in animal feeds and milk replacer for calves, and could potentially transmit BSE if it contained specified risk materials (SRMs include brain and CNS tissue).
SUA — Sweetener Users Association.
Subscription farming — See Community supported agriculture.
Subsidy — A direct or indirect benefit granted by a government for the production or distribution (including export) of a good or to supplement other services. Generally, subsidies are thought to be production and trade distorting, resulting in an inefficient use of resources. Arguably, subsidies may be justified on grounds that they adjust for nonmarket considerations that are as important as market values. The World Trade Organization Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures categorized subsidies as prohibited (red light), actionable (amber light), and nonactionable (green light). Actionable subsidies are subject to countervailing action. The term subsidy also is used to refer to federal reimbursements for meals served through child and elderly nutrition programs.
Subsistence farm — A low-income farm where the operator is producing primarily for the family's needs rather than for sale.
Substantial equivalence — A concept, developed by OECD in 1991, that maintains that a novel food, for example, one that derives from genetic modification or engineering, should be considered the same as and as safe as a conventional food if it demonstrates the same characteristics and composition as the conventional food. Substantial equivalence is important from a regulatory point of view. If a novel food is substantially equivalent to its conventional counterpart, then it could be covered by the same regulatory framework as a conventional food.
Sucrose ethanol — Ethanol derived from sugarcane or sugar beets. Most ethanol manufactured in the United States uses corn as feedstock. Brazil following the oil crisis of the 1970s adopted a policy to produce ethanol from sugarcane as an alternative energy source to cover a larger portion of its fuel needs. More than half of Brazil's sugarcane crop is processed into ethanol each year.
Sugar program — The federal commodity support program that maintains a minimum price for sugar, authorized by the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 1401-1403) to cover the 2002-2007 crops of sugar beets and sugarcane. Designed to protect the incomes of growers of sugarcane and sugar beets, and firms that process each crop into sugar, the program supports domestic sugar prices by: (1) making available nonrecourse loans to processors (not less than 18¢/lb. for raw cane sugar, or 22.9¢/lb. for refined beet sugar); (2) restricting sugar imports using an tariff rate quota, and (3) limiting the amount of sugar that processors can sell domestically (under marketing allotments) when imports are below 1.532 million short tons. Import restrictions are intended to meet U.S. commitments under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture. Processor and refiner marketing allotments are set by USDA according to statutory requirements. Marketing allotments and new payment-in-kind authority are designed to help the USDA meet the no-cost-requirement to the federal government by avoiding the forfeiture of sugar put under loan. Other parts of the new program include a storage loan program for sugar processors, and reduced (by 1%) the USDA interest rate charged on sugar loans.
Sugar re-export programs — Administered by USDA, program regulations allow cane refiners and food manufacturers, subject to certain conditions, to import sugar exempt from tariff-rate quota provisions that apply to sugar imported for consumption in the U.S. market. Cane refiners process the imported raw sugar into refined sugar for re-export, or for transfer to food manufacturers for use in sugar-containing products for export. These programs were designed in the early 1980s to utilize excess cane refining capacity and to make U.S. refined sugar and sugar-containing products more competitive on the world market by allowing participating companies to have access to lower world-priced sugar.
Sugar side letter — A sugar side letter was added to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in last minute negotiations between the Clinton Administration and the Mexican Government before the Congress approved the North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation Act (P.L. 103-182). It altered NAFTA's initial sugar provisions by adding one additional factor to the formula to be used to determine how much sugar Mexico could export to the United States through 2008. Mexican access to the U.S. market was initially set to be equal to the amount of its net sugar surplus (sugar production minus sugar consumption), subject to a maximum of 25,000 metric tons over the 1995-2001 period and a maximum of 250,000 metric tons in 2001-2008. The side letter changed this definition to add Mexican consumption of high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) to the "net production surplus" definition. This change effectively lowers the amount of sugar that Mexico can sell to the U.S. market.
Summer fallow — Cropland usually in semi-arid regions that is purposely kept out of production during a cropping season mainly to conserve moisture for the next season; sometimes called fallow cropland. It may be tilled or sprayed to control weeds and conserve moisture in the soil. The 1997 Census of Agriculture reported that 20.9 million acres, almost 5% of the 431 million acres of all cropland, was fallow that year.
Summer Food Service Program (SFSP) — This program provides federal subsidies for meals and snacks served through local agencies (e.g., schools, local recreation departments) during the summer months. Most meals/snacks are served free in low-income areas. It is authorized under the Richard B. Russell National School Lunch Act (P.L. 79-396, as amended), administered by the Food and Nutrition Service, and funded by annual agriculture appropriations.
Sunflower Oil Assistance Program (SOAP) — Along with the Cottonseed Oil Assistance Program (COAP), SOAP was one of two programs that awarded bonuses to exporters of U.S. vegetable oil to assist with exports to targeted markets. SOAP was authorized beginning in FY1988 with funds made available under Section 32 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act Amendment of 1935 (P.L. 74-320) The provision in the Disaster Assistance Act of 1988 (P.L. 100-387), which had authorized SOAP, expired at the end of FY1995 and was not extended in the 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127). However, the USDA appropriations act for FY1996 (P.L. 104-37) provided authority to operate the program in FY1996. Export subsidies for sunflower oil can be financed under the Export Enhancement Program (EEP).
Super 301 — Section 310 of the 1974 Trade Act (P.L. 93-618, as amended) is commonly referred to as Super 301. As enacted, Super 301 required the USTR for 1989 and 1990 to issue a report on its trade priorities and to identify priority foreign countries that practiced unfair trade and priority practices that had the greatest effect on restricting U.S. exports. The USTR then would initiate a Section 301 investigation against the priority countries to obtain elimination of the practices that impeded U.S. exports, in the expectation that doing so would substantially expand U.S. exports. The original Super 301 provisions expired in 1990, however, President Clinton issued an executive order (EO 12901) reactivating Super 301 for two years (1994 and 1995). The Super 301 process was again extended through 1997 by EO 12973 (September 1995), but was not in operation in 1998. On March 31, 1999, Super 301 again was re-instated and revised by EO 13116. It required the USTR by April 30 to issue its Super 301 report on priority foreign trade practices and to initiate section 301 cases against such practices if agreement is not reached after 90 days. Neither the USTR's April 1999 or April 2000 Super 301 report identified any priority foreign trade practices under Super 301, but USTR did announce that it would initiate Section 301 cases against trade practices in several countries. In its April 2001 Super 301 report, USTR did not make any designations under Super 301, but did announce that consultations (the first stage in WTO dispute settlement) had been requested with Mexico on measures affecting live swine imports, with Belgium on rice import restrictions, and with the European Union on import surcharges on corn gluten feed. In a January 2002 letter report to the Senate Finance Committee on activities under Section 301, the USTR did not identify any priority foreign trade practices under Super 301, although it did report on other activities undertaken under Section 301-310 of the Trade Act of 1974.
Super Sodbuster — An amendment to sodbuster passed in the 1990 farm bill (P.L. 101-624) and repealed in the 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127) that made producers ineligible for specified farm program benefits on all their land if they cultivated highly erodible land that was idle.
Superfund — The principal federal program for cleaning up the nation's worst hazardous waste sites, it was created by the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980 (P.L. 96-510, as amended; 42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq.). The normal application of fertilizer is explicitly excluded from liability under CERCLA.
Supima — An abbreviation for superior Pima and the name of the non-profit promotional organization of the American Pima cotton growers. www.supimacotton.org/index.cfm.
Supplement — For child nutrition programs, this refers to federally reimbursed snacks that are served to children in participating facilities. Also refers to the addition of nutrients to the diet by the use of vitamin and mineral supplements.
Supplier Credit Guarantee Program (SCGP) — An Export Credit Guarantee Program that covers credit terms up to 180 days. The Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) guarantees a portion (up to 65%) of payments due from foreign buyers under short-term financing that the exporters have extended directly to the buyers. These direct credits must be secured by dollar-denominated promissory notes signed by the importers. If an importer fails to make any payment as agreed, the exporter or assignee (e.g., U.S. financial institution) must submit a notice of default. The CCC pays any filed claim for loss, if found to be in good order. The SCGP targets specific U.S. agricultural products, with an emphasis on high-value products and market growth potential.
Supplier credits — A feature of the export credit guarantee programs that permits the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) to issue guarantees for repayment of credit that is made available by a U.S. exporter to a foreign buyer. The credits have a term of up to 180 days (or, if appropriations are made available, up to 360 days).
Supply control programs — Any of several government programs to influence the supply of farm products on the market. Some, such as acreage allotments and marketing quotas, are considered mandatory, in that farmers who produce or market in excess of assigned levels can be legally penalized. Others, such as cropland set-asides, acreage reductions and diversions, and farmer-held grain reserves, are considered voluntary, in that farmers are usually encouraged to participate through financial incentives. Supply control programs are not being used in conjunction with commodity support programs. The policy argument against supply controls is that they forfeit global markets to competing foreign producers.
Supply-chains — A tightly organized production, processing , and marketing system formed by agribusiness firms. The emergence of supply-chains is related to the long-standing trend toward fewer, larger, and more specialized commercial farms and ranches (horizontal integration). A distinguishing characteristic of supply-chains is their reliance on contractual agreements, licenses, joint ventures, integrated ownership, and other business arrangements with different segment of the agro-food system. Broiler production is the exemplar of this trend. Pork production is rapidly becoming vertically coordinated. Contracting for special quality characteristics also is growing in the cash grains market. (See also Value-chains).
Support price — A legislated minimum price for a particular commodity, maintained by USDA through a variety of mechanisms, such as nonrecourse loans and purchase programs. With the exceptions of milk and sugar, commodity programs no longer support market prices received by farmers. However, the term support price may be used inaccurately as a synonym for the marketing assistance loan rate of a loan commodity.
Surface runoff — Precipitation, snow melt, or irrigation water in excess of what can infiltrate the soil surface and be stored in small surface depressions; a major cause of erosion and transporter of nonpoint source pollutants.
Surface Transportation Board (STB) — The federal body regulating railroads created by Congress when it eliminated the Interstate Commerce Commission. Agricultural interests closely follow STB deliberations proceedings on railroad mergers, service issues, and related matters because of their potential impact on grain and other commodity transportation costs. www.stb.dot.gov.
Surplus — The amount by which available supplies are greater than the quantity that will bring producers an adequate income. A surplus may be due to production outrunning demand, a decline in consumption, or a general decline in consumer income or buying power. Historically, commodity programs have been designed to deal with problems of surplus, and the Secretary of Agriculture has had discretion to determine whether an item is in surplus and should be removed from market channels to shore up prices. Approaches have included cropland diversion to reduce production, long-term storage of excess supplies, and purchase and donation of surplus items for foreign or domestic food program use. Sometimes the phrase surplus stocks refers to inventories owned and stored by the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC).
Suspension — A process under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (7 U.S.C. 136d) by which the EPA can suspend the use of a pesticide in order to prevent an imminent hazard resulting from its continued use. An emergency suspension takes effect immediately. Under an ordinary suspension a registrant can request a hearing before the suspension goes into effect. Such a hearing process might take several months.
Sustainable agriculture — A systematic approach to farming intended to reduce agricultural pollution, enhance natural resource and financial sustainability, and improve efficiency. Overall, alternative agriculture emphasizes management practices that take advantage of natural processes (such as nutrient cycles, nitrogen fixation, and pest-predator relationships), improve the match between cropping patterns and agronomic practices on the one hand and the productive potential and physical characteristics of the land on the other. Commercial fertilizer and pesticides are used selectively to ensure production efficiency and conservation of soil, water, energy, and biological resources. Examples of sustainable agricultural practices include use of crop rotation, animal and green manures, soil and water conserving tillage systems, such as no-till planting methods, integrated pest management, and use of genetically improved crops and animals. Sustainable farming is not considered a midpoint on a line between conventional and organic farming. Producers who want to label their commodities as organic must be certified as complying with the list of acceptable and non-acceptable inputs and practices under the National Organic Program (NOP). Genetically modified crops and livestock, and most commercial agricultural chemicals, are not permitted under the NOP.
Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) Program — The Food Security Act of 1985 (P.L. 99-198) authorized a competitive grants program, now called the Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) Program that supports farmer-scientist teams performing on-farm experiments in less chemical-intensive methods of pest control and soil fertility and other sustainable practices. The program also trains Cooperative Extension personnel to work with farmers to encourage adoption of sustainable practices. See Sustainable agriculture. www.sare.org.
Sustainable forest management — The use of silvicultural activities to assure that the desired goals of forest management (outputs, uses, desired conditions, etc.) can continue to be achieved in perpetuity.
Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI) — A program of the American Forest and Paper Association to assure that the organization's members prepare plans and monitor results to realize sustainable forest management of the members' lands, and to assist others in reaching sustainable forest management on other private lands.
Sustained yield — According to the Multiple Use, Sustained Yield Act of 1960 (P.L. 86-517), sustained yield from the national forests means the "achievement and maintenance in perpetuity of a high level of annual or regular periodic output of the various renewable resources of the national forests without impairment of the productivity of the land."
Sustained yield — An output of renewable resources that does not impair the productivity of the resource; it implies a balance between harvesting and incremental growth or replenishment.
Swampbuster — A provision of the Food Security Act of 1985 (P.L. 99-198) that discourages the conversion of wetlands to cropland use. Producers converting a wetland area to cropland lose eligibility for several federal farm program benefits. Benefits are lost from when water levels are lowered to facilitate agricultural production until they have been restored. Several types of wetlands and wetlands in specified situations are exempt. Exceptions include conversions that began before December 23, 1985, conversions of wetlands that had been created artificially, crop production on wetlands that became dry through drought, and conversions that USDA has determined have minimal effect on wetland values. Swampbuster provisions were amended in the 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127) to provide greater flexibility for producers and landowners. The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 2002) made only a single change prohibiting third party providers from making swampbuster determinations.
SWCD — Soil and Water Conservation District; or Soil Conservation District.
SWCS — Soil and Water Conservation Society. www.swcs.org.
SWDA — Solid Waste Disposal Act. See Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (42 U.S.C. 6901 et seq.).
Sweet potato whitefly — An insect pest of cotton, fruit and vegetable, and greenhouse crops. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) works cooperatively with producers to implement pest management strategies based on integrated pest management and biological control techniques.
Swine fever — see Hog cholera.
Swiss formula — An approach to tariff reduction (a modality) used in the Tokyo Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations to reduce and harmonize tariffs for industrial products. Harmonization of tariffs results in a situation where all tariffs are lowered to similar levels. Use of the Swiss formula in the Doha round of agricultural trade negotiations as a means to achieve tariff reductions has been proposed by the United States and the Cairns Group of agricultural exporting countries. An alternative, the Uruguay Round formula of across-the-board percentage tariff reductions, has been proposed by the European Union. The Swiss formula results in higher tariffs being reduced more than lower tariffs. Application of the Swiss formula can be represented as follows: Final tariff = (initial tariff x a)/(initial tariff + a). The United States has proposed in the Doha agricultural negotiations that a coefficient (a in the above formula) of 25 be used to effect tariff reductions. Thus, to illustrate: If the initial tariff is 50%, then the final tariff = (50 x 25)/(50 + 25) = 16.7%; if the initial tariff is 10%, then the final tariff = (10 x 25)/(10 + 25) = 7.1%. In this illustration, a 50% tariff is reduced by 67%, while a10% tariff is reduced by 29%. If the Uruguay Round formula (reduction, over six years, of average tariffs by 36% and of individual tariff lines by a minimum of 15%) were used, then a 50% tariff on an individual product would be lowered to 42.5% and a 10% tariff would be reduced to 8.5%. If 50% and 10% were average tariff levels, then they would be reduced to 32% and 6.4% respectively. In this case, tariff reduction but not harmonization is achieved.
Switching arrangement — A carrier transports the railcars of a competing carrier at origin or destination (for a fee).